Evidence for tobacco in the mummy of Rameses II

In Rosalie David’s chapter on mummification within the publication of an extensive review of Egyptian trade and industry (Nicholson & Shaw 2000) she remarked on the presence of Nicotiana sp. and Anthemideae in the abdominal cavity of Ramses II — which on the surface are evidence for the existence of tobacco in Ancient Egypt in the 2nd millennium BCE. [1]

The first evidence for tobacco in the mummy of Rameses II — a pharaoh of Dynasty XIX (19th Dynasty) who lived and ruled c.1279-1213 BCE — could very well prove ancient contact between Egypt and the Americas (Old World and the New) more than 2000 years before the Norse Vikings were known to have reached the Americas.

The Evidence For Tobacco

Rosalie David refers to Nicotiana and Anthemideae as plants that were used somehow for preservation as part of the mummifications process. Both substances were discovered during the re-examination of his mummy in Paris in 1976, Nicotiana as leaf fragments and Anthemideae was found as massive amounts of pollen in excess of 500,000 grains/cc. [1]

The controversy of this find arises from the fact that, while the family Solanaceae is found throughout the Old World, the genus Nicotiana is exclusively from the New World. (A Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australasian genus. [1]) This tells us quite clearly that this substance is almost certainly from the New World — one of the only locations that it could have originated — indicating the potential for contact between Ancient Egypt and the Americas over 3000 years ago (prior to 1000 BCE when Rameses II lived).

Furthermore, Paris & Drapier-Laprade (1985) were able to confirm the presence of the alkaloid nicotine through gel chromatography and electrophoresis within the mummy, confirming the correct genus.

Further evidence for the presence of Nicotiana was found through radioimmunoassay and gas chromatography by Balabanova and others when testing samples from other mummies in the Munich Museum (Balabanova et al. 1992). [1] These tests showed both the presence of nicotine and its metabolized form cotinine in high levels in the hair, soft-tissue and bones of a number of mummies.

These finds indicate that the presence of nicotine is not isolated to the mummy of Rameses II, but is found in numerous other mummies from the period. [1] Not necessarily via smoking specifically, as we don’t have direct evidence for this, but possibly through other means like fumigation. [1] Whether the presence of nicotine in a large number of mummies makes accidental contamination by European archaeologists in the last couple centuries significantly less likely, or more likely, is unclear on this evidence alone.

Over time, new evidence came to light, showing the presence of both hashish (Cannabis sativa) and cocaine (Erythroxylon coca) as well. For what purpose, religious ritual or pleasure, is not known (nor does it matter here precisely). While cannabis is found through the region naturally, cocaine derived from Erythroxylon coca — the coca plant — is exclusively from the Americas. The mystery deepens.

The Tobacco Beetle

Due to the possibility that modern insects and mites contaminated the mummy specimens, tests were carried out. Steffan (1982; 1985) found evidence of ancient infestations. Specifically a “single larval exuviae of the dermestids Dermestes frischii Kug. and Thylodrias contractus Mots., an adult tobacco beetle of Lasioderma serricoriie (F.), and
the mite Tyrophagus sp.” [1]

Both D. frischii and T. contractus have been evidenced to infest mummies previously. Several of which are deep enough in the mummy wrappings to confirm ancient infestation, not modern. [1]

Doubt and Alternative Explanations

There is a strong possibility that some of the plant specimens for Nicotiana is the result of a pesticide used by European to care for the mummies, and prevent infestation perhaps in the 19th century. (Further explanation can be found in [1] below.) Such as bathing in tobacco water, or fumigation of some kind, which acts as a natural pesticide.

What is harder to explain away, however, is the presence of cocaine and cannabis. High concentrations of THC have been found in lung, skin, and muscle tissues meaning that they were almost certainly consumed via inhalation in ancient times. While cannabis is found in the Old World, which ancient Egyptian trade networks could have had access to — did have access to — cocaine again is not easily explained as it is an exclusively New World plant.

Potential Evidence For Ancient Egypt – Ancient American Contact

While I offer no opinions here, one way or another, it should be noted that aside from the hard evidence presented above, there are other indications of contact between Ancient Egypt and the Americas as early as more than 3000 years ago.

Thor Heyerdahl in the 1970s (I believed) proved that Egyptian reed boats were ocean worthy vessels, in his famous crossing of the Atlantic in the Ra II that was built from ancient designs. That itself is not proof of anything, per se, except that it was possible.

However, reed boats of the exact same time as those built in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are found in central and south America. Perhaps a coincidence, but an incredible one.

Furthermore, there are religious and mythological traditions shared between Ancient Egypt, Sumer and the ancient Americas that are also hard to explain away (due to their precision). Lastly, we have the pyramids of the Americas, which themselves are of similar design to Egyptian pyramids, and even more closely resemble Mesopotamia ziggurat (stepped-pyramids) of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria.

The advanced cultures of the ancient Americas (Incas, Olmecs, Maya, and Aztec) are out of place in their technological level for the Americas. The rest of the Americas were still hunter-gatherer cultures, yet these cultures beginning with the Incas and Olmec close to 1000 BCE emerge at the level of Mesopotamia and Egypt, with many similarities, which itself is curious.

Again, none of this is conclusive. However, there is enough evidence for a degree of reasonable doubt, to at least lay the foundation for future investigation.